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About Ecotherapy
Ecopsychology is the study of how nature impacts mental health and psychological and emotional wellbeing. Note that ecopsychology is not just about human well-being. It is involved with studying the wellbeing of all life on Earth.
Ecotherapy is applying the tools and techniques of ecopsychology in a therapeutic environment.
Ecotherapy means spending time in nature as a therapeutic intervention or incorporating elements of nature such as plants, photographs of nature scenes, or recordings of nature sounds in a therapeutic way. Ecotherapy can take place without a therapist present. This is why therapists and other medical professionals often “prescribe” time in nature as a preventative and a health measure.
In formal ecotherapy a trained therapist leads you through different activities to develop a balanced relationship with nature that benefits your wellbeing. Sessions can be adapted to suit different levels of mobility and fitness, and different disorders or emotional needs. Sessions often include some type of psychotherapy, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).
Need for Ecotherapy
Ecotherapy is needed because disconnection from the natural world in which we evolved produces a variety of psychological symptoms that include anxiety, frustration, and depression. Multiple studies over decades demonstrate that reconnection to the natural world alleviates these symptoms.
In 1986 the World Health Organization proclaimed that health care is not separate from caring for the environment. If we pollute the environment, we pollute ourselves.
Ecotherapy, or using the power of nature to heal, is at least as old as the Reindeer Age Shamans 40,000 years ago, who used the power of nature to heal their peoples.
Last Child in the Woods by Richard Louv (2005, updated in 2008) coined the term “Nature Deficit Disorder.” His inspiration for writing the book came when he was talking to his son about an experience he had as a child catching crawfish. As Louv told the story to his child he realized that the child didn’t understand the story he was trying to tell because he hadn’t spent enough time outdoors to have a common frame of reference for the discussion.
Parents have become fearful about their children playing outdoors, and children who grow up in primarily built environments often fear nature, largely because it is unfamiliar. Spending time in nature, preferably as a family, helps to alleviate this anxiety.
In spite of this fear, violent crimes in general and crimes against children in particular continue to decline. (SOURCE: https://www.freerangekids.com/crime-statistics).
Shaw (2000) researched childhood nature connections and trauma and observed that nature itself was seen as a protector by traumatized children.
Kellert (2002) said that a child’s direct and ongoing experience of accessible nature is an essential, critical, and irreplaceable dimension of healthy maturation and development.
Wilson (1984) believes that there is a biologically based, inherent human need to affiliate with life and lifelike processes. This human need is referred to as “biophilia,” or “love of living things.”
Time in natural spaces reduces crime, strengthens family connections, and decreases domestic violence.
Spending time outdoors decreases the effects of jet lag, increases life expectancy, decreases BMI, and provides opportunities for exercise.
Benefits of Ecotherapy
In 1900 40 percent of US households lived on farms. By 1990 only 1.9 percent of US households lived on farms. This urbanization has changed people’s relationship with nature. Many aspects of our culture now teach people not to spend time in nature, and since we often fear the unfamiliar, this has led to a sometimes irrational fear of spending time in nature.
Since the industrial revolution, urbanization has limited opportunities for experiences in nature (Maller et al., 2008; Townsend & Moore, 2005). Physical inactivity results in 1.9 million deaths worldwide annually (WHO, 2004) – roughly one in 25 of all deaths. Experiences in nature foster healthy physical activities, thereby increasing lifespan and health benefits.
Kellert (2002) found that cognitive, affective, and moral development is impacted significantly and positively by direct contact with nature.
When asked to identify the most significant environment from their childhoods, 96.5 % of a broad sample of adults identified an outdoors environment (Sebba, 1991).
Kim et al (2009) describe using mindfulness with Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) in a mindful walk through a forest before the CBT exercises. After studying this technique, the author concluded that the mindful state produced by this exercise improved depression rating scores, saw improved HRV and decreased salivary cortisol levels.
Chaudhury and Banerjee (2020) Ecotherapy-related techniques have been shown to be effective in medical disorders like hypertension, obesity, post-surgical recovery and psychosocial conditions like depression, stress reduction, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), attention deficit hyperkinetic disorder (ADHD) and adjustment disorders.
Baudon & Jachens, L. (2021) Ecotherapeutic interventions improved symptoms of fear, anger, exhaustion, powerlessness, feelings of loss, helplessness, phobia and despair.
Puk (2021). The ecotherapy model was useful to treat anxiety, procrastination, perfectionism, low self-confidence and over-thinking.
Coventry, et al (2021) – This metastudy shows that outdoor nature-based interventions improve mental health outcomes in adult populations in the community, including those with common mental health problems, Severe Mental Illnesses (SMI), and long-term conditions. Nature-based therapies, such as forest bathing, were consistently effective across all mental health outcomes.
Group gardening and green exercise interventions were also effective for improving mental health outcomes.
Matise & Price-Howard (2020) Worked with veterans with PTSD by engaging in therapeutic kayaking and fishing. Participating in a structured and intentional nature activity, such as kayaking and fishing, significantly assisted in the reduction of stress, re-experiencing intrusive memories and flashbacks, avoidance and isolating behaviors, and hypervigilance among participants.
Nature Homework
Encourage clients/patients to actively pursue elements of nature they feel attracted to as homework assignments. Such homework is often more readily embraced than other more cognitively focused assignments. Such assignments can lead to clients developing their own healing metaphors
Nature Meditation (Nature and Mindfulness)
Ray, et al (2020) The nature group had a greater rate of change in connectedness to nature when compared to the control group, who meditated indoors. Results provided some preliminary evidence to suggest that the effects of meditation may be enhanced if occurring within the context of nature.
Djernis, et al (2019) A total of 25 independent studies were used in the metastudy. An initial synthesis showed overall positive effects of mindfulness in natural settings evaluated in both open trials and controlled trials using non-active control groups. This meta-analysis shows that nature-based mindfulness has had a positive effect on psychological, physical, and social conditions. Furthermore, nature-based mindfulness is moderately superior to mindfulness conducted in non-natural settings.
Nisbet, Zelenski, & Grandpierre (2019) This study examines the idea that increasing momentary mindfulness in nature may be a relatively easy and effective method of bolstering the beneficial effects of brief nature exposure. When people feel connected with nature, they are more inclined to spend time in it and protect it. Conversely, disengagement from nature has detrimental effects on human mental and physical health and environmental sustainability. Results suggest that even brief mindfulness instruction (among those novice to the practice) has some potential for positively influencing nature exposure.
Ecotherapy Models
Sempik (2010) defined Green Care as a diverse set of activities that use nature and nature-based activities as a form of behavioral health intervention.
The Eco-Educative Model of Pedretti-Burls (2007) develops openness towards being more fully, intentionally, and regularly supported by nature, in a caring and respectful interaction.
The Eco-Educative Model (Pedretti-Burls, 2007) includes all of the following strategies:
- Reflecting on the activities and the associated metaphors
- Processing by sharing thoughts and reflections
- Applying the learning from the natural world to the personal everyday world
Types of Ecotherapy
Types of ecotherapy include:
- Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT)
- Care Farming
- Community Gardening
- Eco-Art Therapy
- Forest Bathing
- Outdoor Meditation and/or Yoga
- Wilderness Adventure Therapy
Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT)
“Natural history observations may be a starting point, but they are strongly molded by cultural constructs and by our need to affiliate with the rest of creation through metaphor. Signifying by means of animals takes place at deep levels of human consciousness, emanating from the same type of psychic experience as myth, poetry, and religion whose language is also symbols.”
–Kellert & Wilson, 1993, p. 334
Studies have demonstrated that petting or playing with a dog reduces aggression, lowers blood pressure, slows the heart rate, and increases the production of oxytocin.
Terms for Using Animals in Therapy
- Animal-Assisted Activities include any activity, whether designed to be therapeutic or not, where an animal is present.
- Animal-Assisted Interventions include any therapeutic situation in which an animal is present.
- Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) requires the use of trained animals and a trained therapist/facilitator.
Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI)
Spending time with animals, without necessarily relying on the presence of a trained therapist
Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT)
Building a therapeutic relationship with animals in the presence of a trained therapist. This is a formal type of therapy using guided contact with animals such as horses or dogs.
Care Farming
Care farming is a low-cost ecotherapy intervention because it uses pre-existing farms, gardens, and green spaces. Care farming includes looking after farm animals, growing crops or helping to manage woodlands and natural spaces.
Community Gardening
Per Egli, et al (2016), Community gardens promote healthy body weights, provide physical activity and food security, and foster socialization through a sense of ownership and pride, urban beautification, and community cohesion.
Howarth, et al (2020) demonstrated links between gardens and improved mental well-being, increased physical activity and a reduction in social isolation.
Egli, Victoria & Smith, Melody & Tautolo, El-Shadan. (2016). The development of a model of community garden benefits to wellbeing. Preventive Medicine Reports. 3. 348-352. 10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.04.005.
Howarth, Michelle & Brettle, Alison & Hardman, Michael & Maden, Michelle. (2020). What is the evidence for the impact of gardens and gardening on health and well-being: A scoping review and evidence-based logic model to guide healthcare strategy decision making on the use of gardening approaches as a social prescription.
Eco-Art Therapy
Gornowicz (2019) demonstrated the benefits of using eco-art therapy for the treatment of trauma. Johnson (2021) demonstrated that eco-art therapy could be used to successfully enhance mindfulness in patients diagnosed with eating disorders.
Gornowicz, Nicole (2019). The Benefits of Using Eco-Art Therapy and Healing Trauma. Master’s Thesis, Adler Graduate School, Adler University.
Johnson, Adrienne A. (2021). Pathworking: A Mixed Methods Study of Eco-Art Therapy and Mindfulness in Women with Eating Disorders. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Master of Arts in Art Therapy Degree Department of Art Therapy in the Graduate Program Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College, Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana.
Forest Bathing
Kotera, et al (2020) – Shinrin-yoku (Forest Bathing) was reported effective for depression, anxiety, stress and anger in both clinical and non-clinical samples, especially for anxiety.
Kotera, Y., Richardson, M. & Sheffield, D. (2020). Effects of shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) and nature therapy on mental health: A systematic review and metaanalysis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction.
Outdoor Meditation and/or Yoga
Johnson (2021) reported that engaging in eco-art therapy exercises such as pathworking leads people to mindful levels of consciousness more conducive to meditative states.
Johnson, Adrienne A. (2021). Pathworking: A Mixed Methods Study of Eco-Art Therapy and Mindfulness in Women with Eating Disorders. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Master of Arts in Art Therapy Degree Department of Art Therapy in the Graduate Program Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College, Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana.
Wilderness Adventure Therapy (Wilderness Adventures)
Wilderness therapy: Foundations, theory & research, Davis-Berman, J., & Berman, D. S. (1994) , established the field of wilderness therapy as a valuable therapeutic modality for troubled teens. It reviews the history of the field, cites research that serve as the foundation of a field, gives examples of how to run a program, and discusses ethical issues associated with wilderness therapy.
Young & Crandall (1984) found that wilderness experiences improved a person’s sense of self-perception.
Davis-Berman, J., & Berman, D. S. (1994). Wilderness therapy: Foundations, theory & research. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Young, R. A., & Crandall, R. (1984). Wilderness use and self-actualization. Journal of Leisure Research, 16(2), 149–160.
Way of Council (McCaffrey, 2014)
Council is a practice of speaking and listening from the heart. Through compassionate, heartfelt expression and empathic listening, council inspires a non-hierarchical form of deep communication that reveals a group’s vision and purpose. Council offers effective means of working with conflicts and for discovering the deeper, often unexpressed needs of individuals.
McCaffrey, Joseph P. (2014). The Success of Nature Based Wellness’s Ecotherapy Recovery Programs. Prescott College, Prescott, Arizona.
Nature as Metaphor
Nature is often used as a metaphor for the patient’s journey through therapy. “Nature as metaphor” means reflecting on ecotherapy activities and the associated metaphors they create.
The humanist therapist Milton Erickson helped a man to with alcohol addiction by telling him to contemplate the survival qualities of the cactus. This is an example of the use of nature as metaphor.
Nature as Healer
“Nature as healer” creates awareness of the self-transcending or spiritual dimensions of nature experiences. Ecotherapy recognizes that what we do to nature we do to ourselves, and that we are all interconnected in the web of life. This knowledge can lead to healing.
Ethical Considerations of Ecotherapy
There are special informed consent concerns specific to doing therapy outdoors in natural environments. You should brief patients about ecotherapy privacy concerns in your office prior to going out into the field. While doing ecotherapy in outdoor, public environments, privacy cannot be guaranteed. Privacy issues can be handled through a waiver in your intake paperwork for ecotherapy. Such a waiver states that when on public lands the therapist cannot guarantee privacy due to public access of such properties.
If meeting one-on-one for ecotherapy, do so in a public park or other setting where there are plenty of people/witnesses for safety reasons.
Most insurance companies will not reimburse for ecotherapy sessions, so it is a good idea to check coverage before scheduling such sessions. It is also a good idea to check with your “slip and fall” insurance policy to make sure you’re covered for accidents that occur outdoors and/or during ecotherapy-related activities.
Cultural Appropriation and Ecotherapy
Cultural appropriation refers to the use of objects or elements of a non-dominant culture in a way that doesn’t respect their original meaning, give credit to their source, or reinforces stereotypes or contributes to oppression.
To avoid cultural appropriation, always be respectful of the original meaning and the cultural origins of the elements being used. Give credit to their sources when appropriate and do not engage in practices that reinforce negative stereotypes or that engage in oppression. A good rule of thumb is, “When in doubt, don’t use it.”
When considering ecotherapy activities, be sensitive to cultural appropriation. All of the following are examples of ancestral healing systems that are at least 5000 years old and see being in nature as integral to healing, health, and wellbeing:
- Ayurvedic Medicine (the Indigenous Indian medical system)
- Tibetan Medicine
- Native American Medicine
There seems to be a misconception that the practice of taking a spirit animal as an ecotherapy exercise is “cultural appropriation” because Native American cultures engaged in the practice. While it is true that the practice is widespread in the Native American community, it is a tool that has been used by most, if not all, cultures at one time or another. The practice was and is widespread throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The practice of taking a Spirit Animal is and was a global phenomenon, dating back to, and including, Neanderthals over 60,000 years ago.
In fact, it could be considered “cultural appropriation” to claim that only Native Americans engaged in the practice, as there is ample evidence in the archaeological record that spirit animals pre-date Native American cultures by at least 20,000 years, and claiming that taking a spirit animal is cultural appropriation of Native American culture is engaging in stereotyping Native American cultures. Such stereotyping is the essence of cultural appropriation.
Spirit animals were often used to facilitate vision quests. The vision quest is a time-honored rite of passage common to cultures throughout the world.
In ancient Ireland, the vision quest was called the Tarbfheis. In Norse lands, it was referred to as the Utiseta. Japan’s aboriginal Ainu petition the Kamui to seek their life’s mission. Many Native American cultures had various names for their own types of Vision Quests. The Lakota referred to it as Hanbleceya. The Bwiti of Africa ingest the psychoactive drug iboga to aid their vision quests.
These vision quests were often accomplished through the aid of some sort of spirit animal. According to anthropologist Brandon Bledsoe,
“The bear’s position of prominence within the totemic dominance hierarchy, in each of these groups, is the result of a common ancestral belief-system of Asiatic origin dating back to the time of the Magdalenian period of 20,000 years ago. The Sami, the ancient Finns, the Tungus, the Gilyaks and various other tribes of Siberia, the Ainu of Japan, and Native North American groups, such as the Algonkins and Tlingit, all derived this belief (more or less intact) from the bear cult of prehistoric times.”
Throughout the world since ancient times dating back to at least the Magdalenian Period, the vision quest has been practiced, and still is in many cultures and traditions to this day.
Over a thousand years ago people in both Asian and Western cultures believed that plants and gardens were beneficial for patients in need of healing (Ulrich and Parsons, 1992).
European and American hospitals in the 1800s commonly contained gardens full of healing plants (Nightingale, 1860). In the wake of the Industrial Revolution, medicine became less holistic and therapeutic gardens were replaced with parking lots.
The 1964 Wilderness Act presumed the need for people to enjoy natural spaces as a requirement for mental and physical health.
Many colleges and universities now offer programs in ecopsychology and ecotherapy.
Experiential Ecotherapy Exercises
Naming Ceremony
“…names given in an Indigenous naming ceremony are honored names and are meant to enhance the person’s sense of identity” (Overmars, 2020)
There is literary and archaeological evidence that Norse cultures had naming ceremonies, as did Celtic and other European cultures dating back to the Bronze Age and earlier. Most cultures have naming ceremonies even in modern times. In some religious and cultural celebrations even today there are christening ceremonies where names are given. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam all have their own forms of naming ceremonies, as do most of the other world religions. The naming ceremony is a time-honored tradition from around the world.
At our Mindfulness-Based Ecotherapy program workshops, selecting this name is one of the first things we do. Workshop attendees are addressed by their “nature name” for the duration of the course. This helps to reinforce the idea that attendees are becoming new people as they progress through the workbook and the course.
The River
“Interconnectedness has become an established term in the meditation literature. It implies that any given phenomenon is connected to all other phenomena. Perhaps the best way of appreciating how the principle of interconnectedness relates to our lives as human beings is through our connection with nature. When we breathe in, we breathe in the out-breath of plants, shrubs, and trees. When we breathe out, we breathe out the in-breath of flowers, animals, and birds. When we drink water, we drink the clouds, rivers, and oceans. When we eat a meal, we eat plants, vegetables, and fruits that have grown out of the earth.” (Van Gordon, 2018)
The River exercise allows us to contemplate the flowing nature of time and experience. The activity involves standing in a river. The water behind you represents the past and the water in front of you represents the future. The exercise also allows you to “go with the flow,” experiencing oneness and interconnectedness with nature as the water flows around you and embraces you.
The Bell Branch
“Narrative activities in eco-art therapy invite clients to create a personal narrative with his or her relationship with nature.” (Gornowicz, 2019)
One such eco-art therapy exercise that allows you to create a personal narrative is the Bell Branch. The Bell Branch is a branch selected from a tree that is meaningful to you. In this exercise you take a branch from a tree that is meaningful to you. Next you decorate the branch and tie a single bell on it, representing your eco-spiritual journey. Every time a significant rite of passage occurs to you, tie another bell to your branch. The bells are the reminders of the significant events in your life, and the music they make reminds you of your life’s journey.
Pilgrimage
A pilgrimage is a journey undertaken for a sacred or spiritual purpose. Undertaking a pilgrimage has socially, psychologically, and spiritually therapeutic values, can lead to relief of anxiety and anger, and has been associated with decrease in psychiatric disorders (Moaven, 2017).
If you engage in a pilgrimage, or have your clients do so, contemplate these six questions:
- Who am I?
- Who do I want to be?
- What is my mission or purpose in life?
- How am I living that purpose?
- How am I not living that purpose?
- What would I have to change about myself in order to accomplish my life’s mission?
Vision Quest
The vision quest is a time-honored rite of passage common to cultures throughout the world.
In ancient Ireland, the vision quest was called the Tarbfheis. In Norse lands, it was referred to as the Utiseta. Japan’s aboriginal Ainu petition the Kamui to seek their life’s mission. Many Native American cultures had various names for their own types of Vision Quests. The Lakota referred to it as Hanbleceya. The Bwiti of Africa ingest the psychoactive drug iboga to aid their vision quests.
These vision quests were often accomplished through the aid of some sort of spirit animal. According to anthropologist Brandon Bledsoe,
“The bear’s position of prominence within the totemic dominance hierarchy, in each of these groups, is the result of a common ancestral belief-system of Asiatic origin dating back to the time of the Magdalenian period of 20,000 years ago. The Sami, the ancient Finns, the Tungus, the Gilyaks and various other tribes of Siberia, the Ainu of Japan, and Native North American groups, such as the Algonkins and Tlingit, all derived this belief (more or less intact) from the bear cult of prehistoric times.”
Throughout the world since ancient times dating back to at least the Magdalenian Period, the vision quest has been practiced, and still is in many cultures and traditions to this day.
The vision quest is used to determine life’s purpose. People who undertake a vision quest report increased connection to self, connection to others, spiritual connection, and self-empowerment (Riley & Hendee, 2000).
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